( The Alchemy of Happiness) – a text on Persian Islamic philosophy and spiritual alchemy by (1058–1111). Alchemy is a and tradition practiced throughout, and. It aimed to purify, mature, and perfect certain objects.

Common aims were, the of ' (e.g., ) into ' (particularly ); the creation of an; the creation of able to cure any disease; and the development of an, a universal. The perfection of the and was thought to permit or result from the and, in the and western tradition, the achievement of. In Europe, the creation of a was variously connected with all of these projects. In English, the term is often limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the, the, and the.

In Europe, following the produced by the translation of and the, played a significant role in (particularly and ). Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic, theory, terminology, and, some of which are still in use today. However, they continued 's belief in and guarded their work in secrecy including and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by related to,, and. Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its practical applications and its spiritual aspects, despite the arguments of scholars like and that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by who examine the subject in terms of,, and, and the philosophical and religious contexts in which these events occurred.

The latter interests historians of,, and some philosophers and. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite this split, which von Franz believes has existed since the Western traditions' origin in a mix of that was mixed with and, numerous sources have stressed an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy as far back as 's first-century AD On Physical and Mystical Matters (: Physika kai Mystika). Ambix, cucurbit and retort of, from, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888). The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and, where the city of was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and, each with their own much longer histories, combined to form the earliest known records of alchemy in the West.

Wrote the oldest known books on alchemy, [ ] while is credited as being the first non-fictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in and lived in under rule. Mythology – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion.

Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation. These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets,,,, and many others. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the and his Greek counterpart.

Hermes and his or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to, he wrote what were called the 'forty-two books of Hermes', covering all fields of knowledge. The of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era. Technology – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of, extending back to 3500 BC.

Many writings were lost when the ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria ( AD 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the and the. Dating from AD 300–500, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of (or ), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the. Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art. Philosophy – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of,, and which formed the origin of alchemy's character.

An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements:,,, and. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; '.True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form.'

Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging. Astor Piazzolla Tango Etudes For Flute Pdf Books on this page. Believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. Later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry. Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period. Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as, Isis,,, and.

Others authors such as Komarios, and, we only know through fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors.

BibMe Free Bibliography & Citation Maker - MLA, APA, Chicago, Harvard. In 1996, the Western Journal of Communication (volume 60, issue one) published an article by C. GriFn called 'The Essentialist Roots of the Public Sphere: A ±eminist Critique. Allyn and Bacon published a work called Handbook of Rhetorical and Communication Theory by C. Arnold and John Waite Bowers.

By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries. (Geber), considered the 'father of ', introduced a and approach to alchemy. After, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World.

Much more is known about alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations. The word alchemy itself was derived from the Arabic word al-kīmiyā’ (الكيمياء). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. And thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through translations and scholarship.

In the late 8th century, (Latinized as 'Geber' or 'Geberus') introduced a new approach to alchemy, based on and controlled in the, in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very little concern for laboratory work. Jabir is thus 'considered by many to be the father of ', albeit others reserve that title for. The science historian, Paul Kraus, wrote: To form an idea of the historical place of Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the problem of its sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected by from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages. The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs.

Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugiere and others, could make clear only few points of detail. The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense which refuses any interpretation. It is different with Jabir's alchemy.

The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical apparati, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between the and the `amal. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented, for example, in the Book of Seventy.

Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentation: The first essential in chemistry is that thou shouldest perform practical work and conduct experiments, for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never attain to the least degree of mastery. Early Islamic chemists such as, ('Alkindus') and ('Rasis' or 'Rhazes') contributed a number of key chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic (), and, and more.

The discovery that, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, could dissolve the noblest metal, gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium. Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness. According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior.

For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.

By this reasoning, the search for the was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five (,,,, and ) in addition to two representing the metals:, 'the stone which burns', which characterized the principle of combustibility, and, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and giving solidity. The of, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir. From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including,, and.

In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the. East Asia [ ].

Taoist alchemists often use this alternate version of the. Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine.

The of European alchemists can be compared to the sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. May have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts [ ] and used in in China by the 10th century [ ], it was used in by 1290 [ ].

From China, the use of spread to Japan, the, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to forms of, such as and, and to martial arts such as [ ] and (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the philosophical or hygienic branches of Taoism, not Alchemical). In fact, in the early, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide [ ]. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources [ ] (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan [ ], mastering of the [ ], etc.).

Medieval Europe [ ]. 'An illuminated page from a book on alchemical processes and receipts', ca. 15th century. The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of 's translation of the Arabic Book of the Composition of Alchemy. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century, through contributors like and.

Translations of the time included the, and the works of and. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples. Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West.

In the early 13th century, used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists.

In the 13th century, and were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a, is known to have written works such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student. Roger Bacon, a who wrote on a wide variety of topics including,, and medicine, composed his (: Opus Majus) for as part of a project towards rebuilding the curriculum to include the new learning of his time.

While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.

Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.

In later European legend, however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a capable of answering its owner's questions. Soon after Bacon, the influential work of (sometimes identified as ) appeared. His Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief.

Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the ). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made and about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars.

Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves.,, and all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. 's 1317 edict, forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV ). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of,, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova. Is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of, the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Though the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612.

Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone. Through the, alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone.

And made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.

Renaissance and early modern Europe [ ]. The red sun rising over the city, the final illustration of 16th century alchemical text,.

The word, meaning 'redness', was adopted by alchemists and signalled alchemical success, and the end of the great work. During the, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed. In the late 15th century, translated the and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent.

And guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel. Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala.

A key figure in this development was German (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his De Occulta Philosophia, he attempted to merge, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.

Philippus Aureolus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, 'Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.' His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning to separate and to join together, based on the Latin alchemic maxim: solve et coagula).

Also refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Though better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as, cryptographer, and consultant to, Dee's alchemical Monas Hieroglyphica, written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom As above so below. During the 17th century, a short-lived 'supernatural' interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the: and.

Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the might be used to summon and communicate with angels. Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones., in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate.,,,,, and all contracted alchemists. John's son worked as a court physician to and but also compiled the alchemical book.

Robert Boyle The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for 'ancient wisdom'. Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781 claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: 'Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof.' (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.

This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of and. Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction was drawn between 'alchemy' and 'chemistry' for the first time. By the 1740s, 'alchemy' was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud. In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to separate and divorce the 'new' chemistry from the 'old' practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, and even to the present day. During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science.

The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience. This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes. In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were and, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: 'No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy.'

Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including,, and. Hitchcock, in his Remarks Upon Alchymists (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron, published his studies on, a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.

Women in alchemy [ ] Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. Names,,, and as the four women who knew how to make the philosopher's stone.

Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and also play a role in the early alchemical texts. The first alchemist is recognized as being (c. Mary is known for creating a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry.

Her most well-known advancements are heating and distillation processes. The water-bath, also known as is said to have been invented by or at least improved by her. This double-boiler was often used in chemistry for processes that might require gentle heating. The tribikos (a basic still) and the kerotakis (a more intricate distilling apparatus) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her. It is also said that Mary was the first individual to discover hydrochloric acid, though this is not accepted by most scientific texts. Though we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the fourth century writings of. Due to the proliferation of and anonymous works, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women.

After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently the alchemical literature. Women vacate the history of alchemy during the medieval and renaissance periods, aside from the fictitious account of. 's A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery (1850) marks their return during the nineteenth century occult revival. Modern historical research [ ] The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities,,,, and other mystic movements. Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at, the Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the (ESSWE), and the 's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents.

A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the in Amsterdam. A recipe found in a mid 19th century kabbalah based book features step by step instructions on turning copper into gold. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located.

Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include ', published by the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and ', published by The History of Science Society. Core concepts [ ].

Main article: The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors. •, a blackening or melanosis •, a whitening or leucosis •, a yellowing or xanthosis •, a reddening, purpling, or iosis Modern alchemy [ ] Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science and, have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as George Calian and Anna Marie Roos, who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. Canada Government Car Rebate Program there.

Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from or radical environmentalism movements. Groups like the and have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, 'occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances.'

, which has contributed to a merger of and alchemy in popular thought. Traditional medicine [ ].

Main articles: and Traditional medicine can use the concept of the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In, the are claimed to transform and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day.

Spagyrists of the 20th century, and Jean Dubuis, merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The schools they founded, Les Philosophes de la Nature and The Paracelsus Research Society, popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products. The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a New Age medicinal practice. Psychology [ ] Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist.

Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images, after being given a copy of the translation of The Secret of the Golden Flower, a Chinese alchemical text, by his friend Richard Wilhelm, Jung discovered a direct correlation or parallels between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in dreams, visions or imaginations during the psychic processes of transformation occurring in his patients. A process, which he called 'process of individuation'. He regarded the alchemical images as symbols expressing aspects of this 'process of ' of which the creation of the gold or lapis within were symbols for its origin and goal. Together with his alchemical mystica soror, Jungian Swiss analyst, Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available, compiled a lexicon of key phrases with cross-references and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote brought new light into understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for persons who have an interest in understanding of the importance of dreams, symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces () that influence all of life.

Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works,.

Literature [ ]. Main article: Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature from to. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of Terry Pratchett.

Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games. See also [ ].

• Calian, George (2010).. Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU. • Forshaw, Peter J. 'Chemistry, That Starry Science – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy'.. • Forshaw, Peter J. 'Cabala Chymica or Chemica Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala'.. • Linden, Stanton J.

• Linden, Stanton J. The Alchemy Reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton.. • Newman, William R.; (2002)... •; (July 2005)....

Retrieved 17 December 2011. • Principe, Lawrence M. The secrets of alchemy. Chicago &London: University of Chicago Press.. •; Newman, William R.

'Some Problems with the Historiography of Alchemy'. In Newman, William R.;... Retrieved 17 December 2011. Darrel (2001). 'Celestial Offerings: Astrological Motifs in the Dedicatory Letters of Kepler's Astronomia Nova and Galileo's Sidereus Nuncius'.

In Newman, William R.;... Retrieved 17 December 2011. External links [ ] Look up in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Look up in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Wikimedia Commons has media related to. Has original text related to this article.